part 3 of of the multipart exploration of European art as a reflection of cultural transformation - The Protestant Reformation
Now we are continuing on to the meat of this series, as we enter the protestant reformation and the revolutionary bourgeois-liberal spirit finally bursts to the surface in a wave of revolution, violence, social upheaval, and iconoclasm.
The Reformation
The reformation, and counter reformation
art of a historical, cultural and spiritual social phenomenon and the reaction to it
The Protestant Reformation, a profound movement that emerged in the 16th century, challenged the practices and doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, leading to a seismic shift in the religious landscape of Europe. Spearheaded by figures such as Martin Luther, and John Calvin. the Reformation advocated for a return to scriptural authority and personal faith, resulting in the establishment of various Protestant denominations. As a response to this upheaval, the Catholic Church initiated the Counter-Reformation, exemplified by the Council of Trent, which sought to reaffirm Catholic doctrine and address the criticisms leveled by reformers. One of the most significant and illustrative contrasts between these two movements lies in their approach to religious art. While Protestant reformers often rejected religious imagery, viewing it as a potential distraction from direct communion with God, the Catholic Church embraced art as a vital tool for spiritual engagement and education. This essay will explore the historical context of the Protestant Reformation and the Counter-Reformation, examining how each movement shaped religious art, as well as how art shaped and was shaped by morality leaving its mark on the development of art still today. By analyzing the divergent uses of art in both traditions, or even the absence of art in some of the more radical protestant traditions, we will uncover how artistic representations not only reflected theological beliefs but also served as battlegrounds for the broader ideological conflicts of the time. Ultimately, the contrasting artistic expressions of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation reveal deeper insights into the evolving nature of faith, worship, and the role of visual culture in shaping religious identity.
The Catholic Church emerged as the only stable institution to survive the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, providing continuity in governance, culture, and religion during a time of significant upheaval. As political structures disintegrated and Europe entered the chaotic period known as the Dark Ages, the Church became a unifying force, offering spiritual guidance and a sense of identity amid the fragmentation of feudal territories. It preserved classical knowledge through monastic communities, which copied and maintained ancient texts, while also establishing schools that educated clergy and laypeople. By fostering a shared Christian faith and coordinating social services, the Church played a central role in maintaining order and stability, ultimately laying the groundwork for the revival of civilization and the flourishing of culture in the subsequent Middle Ages(D’Ambrosio, 2017). Through its influence, the Church helped to knit together the disparate regions of post-Roman Europe, facilitating the emergence of a more cohesive society over time.
By the middle ages and on into the renaissance the Catholic Church played a central and multifaceted role in European society, serving as a unifying force amid the fragmentation of feudalism and political instability. As the predominant religious institution, the Church provided spiritual guidance and a framework for moral conduct, influencing nearly every aspect of daily life. But the function of the Church became so much more, resembling the civil service of modern day nation-states, but in a independent, transnational form. It established a system of education through monasteries and cathedral schools, fostering literacy and learning among the clergy and laypeople alike. Creating schools for the young, as well as universities for those entering professions, the Church was the original sponsor for the flourishing of art, science and culture that brought Europe out of the dark ages. The Church also acted as a proto-welfare state, creating workhouses and hospitals to care for the poor, sick, and needy, reflecting its commitment to charity and social responsibility, the church also often provided retirements for the sick and elderly, allowing them to enter the monestary systems and spend the remainder of their life in peace and contemplation, with a relative level of comfort Additionally, the Church maintained a transnational bureaucracy, with a hierarchical structure that transcended local boundaries, allowing it to standardize practices and enforce canon law across Europe. This extensive network enabled the Church to wield significant political power, often mediating disputes between kingdoms and influencing governance.
While the Church undoubtedly was very often a force for good, and the only reason most knowledge from the classical period survived. It was also an institution with a level of power that no other has ever achieved in all of European history. And With that incredible level of power, there is a serious temptation to corruption. Popular dissatisfaction with many of the conditions created around the Roman Catholic church led to a period of intense upheaval and the first emergence of large numbers of organized schismatics in centuries. This period has come to be called “the Reformation” or the Protestant Reformation.This period was characterized by religious, political, and cultural upheaval, resulting in the establishment of various Protestant denominations that rejected papal authority and certain Catholic doctrines. As well as some of the most brutal wars in all of European history such as the thirty years war. Several pivotal figures emerged during the Protestant Reformation, each contributing uniquely to the movement. Martin Luther is perhaps the most well-known reformer. His Ninety-Five Theses, posted in 1517, criticized the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences and questioned the Church's authority. John Calvin, another significant figure, developed the theological framework of Calvinism, emphasizing predestination and the sovereignty of God. Huldrych Zwingli, a contemporary of Luther, led the Reformation in Switzerland and focused on the simplification of worship and the authority of scripture.
Luther's particular grievances with the Catholic Church were numerous and profound. His primary complaint centered around the sale of indulgences, which he viewed as a corrupt practice that exploited the faithful. He believed that salvation could not be purchased and was instead attained through faith alone (sola fide) and scripture alone (sola scriptura). Luther also criticized the Church's reliance on tradition and the authority of the Pope, arguing that the Bible should be the sole source of religious authority. He opposed the concept of transubstantiation in the Eucharist, advocating for a more symbolic understanding of the communion elements. Aside from the specific theological reasons suggested by Luther, there were wider complaints with the Church. The Church had traditionally upheld a divine hierarchy and order of life that organized society in different ways, such as a semi-formal caste system that had divided people up into Orotores(the educated, such as priests), Laboratores(those who work for a living) and Bellatores (those who wield the sword for a living, the feudal nobility) and assigned different rights and social functions to each of these groups(Lancaster 2008). Pushback to this hierarchical trend in Catholic tradition began largely in the renaissance with the development of new ideologies like humanism(Wisse 2002). The Renaissance's emphasis on humanism fueled many of the political aspects of the Reformation, encouraging individuals to dispute tradition and the necessity of the intercession of a priest, to instead engage directly with the Bible, thereby undermining the Church's authority. Additionally, political motivations, particularly among rulers and city-states seeking independence from papal control, contributed to the movement's momentum. Lastly, social upheaval and economic challenges created an environment ripe for reformist ideas, as people sought solutions to their grievances. Collectively, these factors provided a fertile ground for the Reformation, leading to a profound transformation in Christianity and European society.
The medieval Catholic Church based much of its social legitimacy outside of the theological on its origins in classical Rome and made concerted efforts to connect itself to Roman civilization in order to bolster its authority and legitimacy in a changing world. One of the primary strategies was the Church's embrace of Roman cultural and administrative practices, adopting the Latin language as the lingua franca for liturgy and scholarship, which linked it to the intellectual legacy of Rome. Additionally, the Church positioned itself as a continuation of the Roman Empire's authority, with the Pope claiming the title of Pontifex Maximus, a title originally held by Roman emperors, to signify spiritual leadership. Architectural styles also reflected this connection; many churches and cathedrals were built in the Romanesque and later Gothic styles, incorporating elements like arches, columns, and grand facades reminiscent of Roman basilicas. Furthermore, the Church actively sought to legitimize its power through the establishment of canon law, which often mirrored Roman legal principles, thereby reinforcing its governance structure. By intertwining its identity with that of the ancient Roman Empire, the medieval Catholic Church sought to present itself as a stabilizing force in a fragmented Europe, claiming both spiritual and temporal authority that could unify diverse populations under a common faith and cultural heritage. The most important aspect to us in this view towards the classical is the medieval art of catholic Europe. Particularly that of the renaissance which led directly into the Reformation.
Art commissioned by the Catholic Church during the Renaissance and Baroque periods served as a powerful means to glorify God, the Church, and the nations that supported it. The Church sought to assert its authority and prestige through grand artistic endeavors, commissioning works that would inspire awe and reverence among the faithful. Notably, many of these artworks drew inspiration from Greco-Roman art, incorporating elements such as idealized forms and nudity, particularly in the depiction of the male body. This stylistic choice was not merely an aesthetic preference; it was grounded in the belief that the beauty of the human form reflected the divine, a belief that came directly from Ancient Greece(Garcia 2023). Artists like Michelangelo and Gian Lorenzo Bernini created imposing sculptures and paintings that highlighted the muscular and idealized bodies of saints, biblical figures, and allegorical characters, thereby linking the sacred with classical ideals of beauty and virtue. The use of nudity in these works, while later on becoming contentious, was intended to celebrate the human body as a creation of God, emphasizing themes of resurrection, purity, and divine grace. By commissioning art that echoed the grandeur of ancient Rome and Greece, exemplifying beauty, order and harmony to the universe resembling the ancient Greek artists “Divine Harmony” or “The Divine Proportions” the Catholic Church aimed to evoke a sense of continuity with a glorious past while simultaneously asserting its cultural dominance and theological authority in the contemporary world. As well as to pursue the visual representation of “the divine ideal”, Ethan Garcia tells us “ The pursuit of the divine ideal – an embodiment of beauty, strength, and symmetry – was the driving force behind these creations. Through the canon of proportions, the sculptors aimed to capture not just the physical likeness but also the metaphysical essence of the human figure. Every contour and curve held significance beyond aesthetics; they were bridges to a world where the gods' perfection was mirrored in the material realm.”(Garcia 2023) This fusion of religious and classical themes not only glorified God and the Church but also reinforced the power and identity of the nations that supported the Catholic faith, aligning civic pride with spiritual devotion and directly connecting the social order to the divinely ordained social structure and hierarchy that the Church had long preached.
(Michelangelo. David . 1501-1504. Marble Sculpture. https://www.accademia.org/explore-museum/artworks/michelangelos-david/ accessed 04-05-2025)
The art of the Protestant Reformation emerged as a distinctive response to the opulence and iconography of Catholic art, reflecting the theological and ideological shifts within the movement. Protestant reformers, particularly figures like Martin Luther and John Calvin, criticized the lavish use of religious imagery and the veneration of saints, arguing that such practices could lead to idolatry and distract worshippers from a direct relationship with God. As a result, Protestant art tended to favor simplicity and clarity, often prioritizing biblical text and narratives over elaborate visual representations. Instead of grand altarpieces and intricate sculptures, Protestant artists created works that emphasized moral lessons and scriptural themes, such as the importance of faith and redemption. For example, artists like Lucas Cranach the Elder produced woodcuts and paintings that depicted scenes from the Bible, focusing on relatable, human aspects of faith rather than idealized figures. This shift not only marked a departure from the rich visual traditions of Catholicism but also underscored the Reformation's foundational principles ofsimplicity, personal interpretation, and the centrality of scripture in worship. Ultimately, the art of the Protestant Reformation served as a means to communicate its values and beliefs, reinforcing the movement’s emphasis on spiritual authenticity and the rejection of perceived excesses in Catholic visual culture.
Perhaps one of the most egregious responses of the Protestant reformation to the high art of the Medieval Catholic Church, aside from the intense focus on moralism, was the return of Iconoclasm.The destruction of images, perceived to be idolatry. Reformers like Martin Luther and John Calvin argued that the veneration of images and saints constituted idolatry, detracting from the direct relationship between individuals and God. This led to widespread iconoclasm, especially in regions adhering to Reformed theology, where churches were stripped of altars, statues, and paintings viewed as distractions from the Word of God. As a result, Protestant art underwent a transformation, shifting away from ornate religious imagery toward simpler, more didactic forms that emphasized scripture and moral instruction. The focus was on the preached word rather than visual representation, leading to the creation of artworks that were often devoid of figures or adorned with text. For example, many Protestant congregations favored landscapes or still-life paintings that served as reminders of God’s creation without the potential for idolizing human forms. As well some Artists like the aforementioned Lucas Cranach the Elder created works that illustrated biblical narratives while maintaining a focus on clarity and moral lessons, reflecting the Reformation’s emphasis on personal faith and individual interpretation of scripture. This evolution in art not only marked a departure from the rich visual traditions of Catholicism but also underscored the Reformation’s foundational principles of simplicity, sincerity, and a direct connection to the divine.
As a reaction to the concerns of the new Protestant sects running wild throughout Europe, including the Protestant visions of how art should, or should not be. Theere was the development of a significant movement within the Catholic Church that emerged in response to the Protestant Reformation, aiming to address internal corruption and reaffirm Catholic doctrine. Initiated by the Council of Trent (1545-1563),It reaffirmed central Catholic doctrines, including the significance of tradition alongside scripture, the validity of “the seven sacraments”—Baptism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance (Confession), Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony— sacred rituals believed to confer grace and strengthen the spiritual life of the faithful at various stages of their lives. As well as the doctrine of transubstantiation in the Eucharist. The Council also implemented significant reforms, such as the establishment of seminaries for the proper education of priests, measures to eliminate corruption and abuses like the sale of indulgences, and a call for a more rigorous moral standard among clergy. Additionally, it emphasized the importance of the Church's authority in interpreting scripture, thereby solidifying the Catholic Church's position in response to Protestant challenges. For us, the most interesting aspect of the Council of Trent were changes made to Catholic Art.
One of the central tenets of the Counter-Reformation as promoted at the Council of Trent was a new found focus, particularly within art commissioned by the church of moralism. In its efforts to counteract Protestant criticisms, the Church advocated for art that conveyed clear, didactic messages about faith, virtue, and righteousness. This shift manifested in a marked reduction in the portrayal of nudity and the idealization of the human form, which had been prominent in earlier Renaissance art, such as in the works of Michelangelo. The Council viewed excessive nudity and sensuality as distractions that could undermine the spiritual message of the artwork, aligning with its broader goals of moral rectitude and piety. Counter-Reformation artists were tasked with creating works that adhered to these new standards, and the Council established guidelines that discouraged the depiction of nudity except where it served a specific theological purpose. This resulted in a more restrained approach to the human form, favoring modesty and decorum over classical idealization. Artists like Caravaggio exemplified this new direction, opting for realistic portrayals of biblical figures that emphasized their humanity while still conveying moral lessons. Most Interestingly, some Counter-Reformation artists took the additional step of revising earlier masterpieces, including the works of artists like Michelangelo. For instance, in the late 16th century, some of Michelangelo's nude figures in the Sistine Chapel were painted over or modified to align with the Church's more conservative values. This act of censorship reflected a broader commitment to ensuring that all art sponsored by the Church adhered to the moral standards set by the Counter-Reformation. Artists like Daniele da Volterra, often referred to as "Il Braghettone" (“the breeches-or pants- maker”), were specifically commissioned to cover nudity in Michelangelo's works to create a more decorous representation in line with the Church's directives.
(Michelangelo/ Volterra. The last Judgment. https://smarthistory.org/the-council-of-trent-and-the-call-to-reform-art/ Accessed 04-06-2025)
(“Left to right: Saint Blaise, Saint Catherine, and Saint Sebastian. Daniele Volterra added loincloths and clothes to many of the figures in the Last Judgment, especially those in the upper half of the painting. Volterra added a purple loincloth to Saint Sebastian on the lower right, an entire outfit to Saint Catherine (wearing green), and actually chiseled out and repainted Saint Blaise (in red). Saint Blaise’s original position was more hunched over Saint Catherine’s, and critics found it too suggestive of a sexual act—especially because Catherine was completely nude. Michelangelo, Last Judgment (detail), Sistine Chapel, fresco, 1534–41 (Vatican City, Rome”-Dr. Kilroy-Ewbank)
The much greater emphasis on moralism in both Protestant religious art- or lack thereof- and Catholic, increasingly shaped the visual language of the period and the content of art, as well as the wider culture down to this very day. The moralism of Protestantism, especially one of the most influential of the reformers, John Calvin, led to Puritanism and the early modern focus on suppression of sexuality (especially that of females) and the Witch hunts and trials that accompanied it. On the Catholic side, the more brutal aspects of the Inquisition were developed and propagated, and the intolerance of both sides tore Europe apart with religious wars such as the 30 years war, the 80 years war, the French war of religion, the English civil war, and the Glorious revolution in England.
The new trends in art between Catholic, Counter-reformation Europe, and Protestant Reformation Europe provide us with many interesting contrasts to look at as we explore the variation in art. Often, religiously significant events found in the theological background of Christianity are the subjects of religious art, and the reformation and Counter-Reformation resulted in divergent portrayals of the same events. One of these religiously significant events, The Last Supper, has been portrayed in art numerous times due to its profound theological significance as the final meal shared by Jesus with his disciples before his crucifixion, which serves as the pivotal moment in the Christian narrative and doctrine. This scene encapsulates key themes such as betrayal, sacrifice, and the institution of the Eucharist, making it a powerful subject for exploration in various artistic mediums. Artists have sought to convey the emotional intensity of the moment, the complex relationships between the figures, and the dramatic tension surrounding Jesus’ announcement of betrayal. Two artists who diverge on this topic are the Italian Catholic Tintoretto and German Protestant artist Albrecht Dürer.
Tintoretto's The Last Supper, created between 1592 and 1594, is a significant work that illustrates the artist's motivations and techniques while reflecting the broader context of the Counter-Reformation in Venice. Tintoretto, a prominent Italian painter of the “Venetian school), aimed to evoke a sense of spiritual intensity and emotion in his art, which was in alignment with the Catholic Church's efforts to engage the faithful during this period. The medium used for this work is oil on canvas, which allowed the artist to create vibrant colors, rich textures, and dramatic contrasts of light and shadow. This technique is characteristic of the Venetian school, where artists sought to convey depth and movement. In The Last Supper, Tintoretto employs chiaroscuro to highlight Christ at the center of the composition, illuminating His figure with a divine light that symbolizes His holiness and importance. The painting is notable for its dynamic composition; the figures are arranged in a swirling motion, capturing the moment of Christ's announcement of betrayal. This sense of movement, combined with the expressive gestures of the apostles, creates an atmosphere of excitement and tension. Tintoretto’s choice to depict the scene from below, looking slightly upward at Christ, also enhances the viewer's engagement with the divine moment(https://www.adrianchanart.com/art-essays/the-last-supper).
(Tintoretto. The Last Supper .Church of San Giorgio Maggiore, https://useum.org/artwork/Last-Supper-Tintoretto-1590 . Accessed 04-06-2025)
Albrecht Dürer’s The Last Supper, created in 1523, is a woodcut print that exemplifies the artist’s commitment to the principles of the Protestant Reformation and his innovative approach to printmaking. The artist, throughout his career in art, was motivated by a desire to make religious themes accessible to a broader audience, reflecting the Protestant emphasis on individual interpretation of scripture and faith. The medium of woodcut allowed Dürer to produce multiple impressions of his artwork, making it widely distributable and affordable. This was particularly significant during the Reformation, as it aligned with the movement’s goal of democratizing access to religious imagery and texts. Dürer’s meticulous attention to detail in the woodcut technique showcases his skill, as he carved intricate designs into the woodblock to create a striking visual narrative. In The Last Supper, Dürer presents a more reserved and contemplative interpretation compared to his contemporaries(https://www.adrianchanart.com/art-essays/the-last-supper). The composition is structured and orderly, with Christ positioned at the center, surrounded by the apostles in a more subdued manner. This arrangement reflects Dürer’s focus on clarity and the importance of the written word, echoing the Protestant belief in the priesthood of all believers and the direct relationship between individuals and God.
(Durrer,Albert. The Last Supper. Open Access Image from the Davison Art Center, Wesleyan University (http://www.wesleyan.edu/dac/openaccess) 1523. Woodcut. Accessed 04-06-2025)
When contrasting the two artists works’ the divergent influences become quite apparent. Tintoretto, an Italian Catholic artist, produced a dynamic oil painting of the Last Supper, His choice of oil on canvas was common in the Venetian school, where vibrant colors and dramatic contrasts were favored. The medium allowed for a sense of immediacy and depth, which is essential in portraying a religious moment laden with emotion.In contrast, Albrecht Dürer, a German Protestant, created a woodcut print of the Last Supper. A medium that involves carving an image into the surface of a woodblock, was prevalent in Northern Europe and allowed for mass reproduction, making religious art more accessible. Dürer’s choice reflects the Protestant Reformation’s emphasis on scriptural accessibility and personal interpretation of faith. Both artists interpreted the Last Supper with their theological perspectives in mind. Tintoretto’s painting is notable for its dramatic composition and energetic figures, capturing the moment when Jesus announces the betrayal. The swirling movement of the apostles and the use of chiaroscuro create a sense of urgency and turmoil. The presence of a heavenly light illuminating Christ from above underscores His divine nature, a key Catholic belief in the sacramental essence of the Eucharist, which is central to Catholic doctrine. The opulence of the setting and the grand gestures of the figures also reflect the Catholic tradition of celebrating the divine mystery through rich visual experiences. The light at the center, the halo around Christ, the Divine beings at the top, the entire thing is saturated with theological significance. In contrast, Dürer's woodcut offers a more restrained and contemplative view of the Last Supper. The composition is orderly, with Jesus at the center, surrounded by the apostles in a more subdued manner, the woodcut is merely showing the events, with a sense of realism, almost like a artist drawing(or in this case cutting) a party in a room to preserve it for historicity. Dürer’s focus on clarity and detail aligns with the Protestant emphasis on the Word of God. The absence of excessive ornamentation points to a theology that values simplicity and directness in worship. Dürer’s representation can be seen as a reflection of the Reformed focus on the significance of the Scriptures, as well as the belief in the priesthood of all believers — suggesting that every individual has direct access to God without the need for mediation by the clergy.The religious values and doctrines of their respective denominations are vividly illustrated in their works. Tintoretto’s emphasis on the dramatic and sacramental nature of the Last Supper aligns with Catholic teachings on transubstantiation, where bread and wine are believed to become the actual body and blood of Christ during the Mass. The painting serves to elevate the act of communion as a holy, transformative experience. The swirling light and shadow, the room squared off by Angels overhead, the drama on the faces, it serves to make the picture seem ecstatic, metaphysical, almost reminiscent of a explosion in my opinion. This is the mystical, traditional, transcendental side of Catholicism on display. Saints, holy Water, Icons, and Miracle. Truly beautiful. Dürer, on the other hand, embodies the Protestant ideal of faith grounded in scripture and personal reflection. His woodcut, with its straightforward imagery, encourages viewers to contemplate the Last Supper as a narrative of Christ’s sacrifice, focusing less on ritual and more on the direct relationship between the believer and Christ.
In Conclusion, the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation were pivotal movements that not only reshaped the religious landscape but also significantly influenced the role of art within each tradition. The Reformation, spearheaded by influential figures such as Martin Luther and John Calvin, emphasized a return to scripture and personal faith, which led to a widespread rejection of religious imagery. This austere approach aimed to eliminate distractions from worship, resulting in the removal of religious art from many Protestant spaces and the promotion of a simpler worship experience focused on preaching and scripture. Conversely, the Catholic Church's response through the Counter-Reformation sought to reaffirm its doctrines and re-engage with the faithful. The Council of Trent played a critical role in this effort, establishing guidelines that not only addressed corruption within the Church but also stressed the importance of art as a vehicle for spiritual education and inspiration. Artists created powerful works that conveyed dramatic religious narratives, aimed at evoking emotional responses and deepening the viewer's connection to God and the Church. This stark contrast in the use of religious art highlights the broader ideological conflicts between the two movements. While Protestant art often leaned toward minimalism, emphasizing the Word of God over visual representation, Catholic art flourished in richness and complexity, serving as a testament to the Church's authority and the beauty of the divine. Ultimately, the divergent artistic expressions of the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Counter-Reformation not only reflect their theological beliefs but also underscore the profound impact these movements had on the cultural and religious identities of their respective followers. The divergent nature of the underlying philosophies even influenced each other sometimes in ways making them closer together, such as the increased focus in Catholic art on Moralism and less nudity. Or even in the rejection of religious art at all, found in the Iconoclasm of many early Protestant sects. There have been many artists associated with both faith movements, and often these artists are creating depictions of the same theological scenes, but through a different ideological lens. Such as German Protestant Albrecht Dürer, and the Italian Catholic Tintoretto, both of whom depicted the “Last Supper” through their work. Both of these works of art were arranged in ways that makes them truly exemplify the spirit of each movement, and to invite the observer to side with their particular religious sects. Understanding the contrast between the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, as well as the differing artistic expressions of Protestant and Catholic art, is crucial for appreciating how theological beliefs shaped cultural and visual narratives during a transformative period in European history. This contrast not only highlights the divergent values and priorities of each movement—such as the Protestant emphasis on scripture and simplicity versus the Catholic focus on tradition and emotive grandeur—but also illustrates how art served as a battleground for these competing ideologies, influencing society's spiritual and cultural identity. And these trends provide us with a roadmap for understanding how our social mores, and our art developed from then until the modern day.
Works Cited
Kilroy-Ewbank Lauren - Smarthistory. (n.d.). The Council of Trent and the call to reform art. Accessed March 2025, from https://smarthistory.org/the-council-of-trent-and-the-call-to-reform-art/
The Metropolitan Museum of Art. (n.d.). The Reformation. Accessed March, 2025, from https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/the-reformation
Lancaster, R. (2008). Of monks, managers, and lawyers: The emergence of bureaucratic careers in the medieval Church. University of Chicago.
Accademia Gallery. (n.d.). Michelangelo's David. Accessed March 2025, from https://www.accademia.org/explore-museum/artworks/michelangelos-david/
Usem. (n.d.). Last Supper, Tintoretto, 1590. Accessed March 6, 2025, from https://useum.org/artwork/Last-Supper-Tintoretto-1590
lbrecht Dürer. (1523). The Last Supper [Woodcut]. Davison Art Center, Wesleyan University. Gift of George W. Davison (B.A. Wesleyan 1892), 1938. Retrieved March 2025 from http://www.wesleyan.edu/dac/openaccess
Chan, A. (n.d.). The Last Supper. Retrieved March 6, 2025, from https://www.adrianchanart.com/art-essays/the-last-supper
Finestre sull'Arte. (n.d.). Uffizi: Lucas Cranach's Adam and Eve reunited in one frame. Retrieved March 6, 2025, from https://www.finestresullarte.info/en/ancient-art/uffizi-lucas-cranach-s-adam-and-eve-reunited-in-one-frame
1st Art Gallery. (n.d.). Divine ancient Greek sculpture. Retrieved March 6, 2025, from https://www.1st-art-gallery.com/article/divine-ancient-greek-sculpture/#:~:text=The%20pursuit%20of%20the%20divine,essence%20of%20the%20human%20figure.